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Atatürk’s Reforms (1922-1938) (Turkish: Atatürk Devrimleri or Atatürk İnkılapları) is a series of political, legal, cultural, social and economic reforms accomplished with the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, hence the name Ataturk's Reforms. The ruling elite who were graduated from the modern schools (established during the Tanzimat) of the old Ottoman Empire, organized under Republican People's Party and applied their visions as a broad development concept which encompassed all fields of government action and public life[1]. Reforms began with a modern constitution, which they adapted the European laws and jurisprudence; than administration policy was totally changed with a thorough secularization and modernization, and same perspective was used for education; they channeled major sources for industrialization using macro developmental strategies based on import substitution and the founding of state enterprises and state banks[1]. The main motive behind the reforms was the belief that in order to modernize, Turkish society would have to Westernize itself, not only politically, but socially and culturally as well.[2]
This reform movement more accurately be termed as a revolutionary movement given their distinctly fundamental nature. The reforms were performed during single party period with the Republican People's Party as the driving force and some consider forming or recreating a society from the top-down without a wide range of consensus.
The political reforms has undergone a number of institutional changes. When the republic was established the Ottoman Empire was still in existence, with its heritage of religious legitimacy and dynastic authority. Yes, the dynasty was abolished by political decision of Ankara Government but the reality among the people was a different. Among the people, maybe not as much among the elite (educated) section, its tradition of state, its herniate of the cultural and physical symbols remained active. However very carefully planned political change through the reforms began to impage on the traditional complex system developed by the Ottoman Empire through out centuries. [3] The reforms included, foremost, paving the way for the proclamation of the republic was the abolition of the powers of the Ottoman Dynasty which had ruled since 1383, and ordering the last members of the dynasty to leave the country, on November 1, 1922. The proclamation of the new Turkish state as a republic on October 29, 1923, giving the Turkish nation the right to exercise popular sovereignty by representative democracy. Also during this process, the Caliphate (the nominal leadership of all Muslims in the world) held by the Ottoman Sultan since 1517 was abolished on March 3, 1924.
It is a common fact that revolutinaries had a military apex, but the political reforms were a civilian revolution. It was a civilian revolution as reforms comprised every sphere, which means not only were all the social institutions of Turkish Society reorganized but also all social and political values and ideology of the state were replaced [4]. To understand the reason behind the military apex one has to remember that reforms performed in interwar period. The military occupied 16.9% of the professions at this period, while today this is only 3 %[4].
The precursors for the secular reforms can be found in the measures and the proposals of the Ottoman Empire (Tanzimat, first constitutional and second constitutional era). During the Ottoman Empire experiance to accommodate Christian and Muslim populous; the Ottoman's failure to embracing the Arab populous is part of the debate; As if the reforms that Ottoman government peruse, "alienated a segments of its society," and as "the state's hostility to religion became clear,… Islam thus became a political tool in the hands of Arab populous" which Sultan tried to associated himself (see Countercoup (1909)) and was a reason given for the Arab Revolt; the Ataturks reforms mainly try to escape from the old mistake and having rather an Islam having emerged solely from opposition to the Kemalist state, they wanted to produce a Kemalist socialization imbibed by more pluralistic Islamists. The changes performed under secularism was not happened overnight in the framework of new republic. It had a narrative originating from the Ottoman Empire's political experience, which even continues during the 21th century, with a Turkish Islam, rooted in Sufism, particularly Naqshbandi Sufi orders, and punctuated by frontier conditions of Turkey, is at least claims "pluralistic" and "liberal". Was this "pluralistic" and "liberal" from was a consequence of a chance or a planned outcome is debated.
The change came couple different perspectives abolition of the office of caliphate held by the Ottomans since 1517 was achieved on March 3, 1924, which followed the abolition of the religious education system and the introduction of a national education system on March 3, 1924; closure of Islamic courts and the abolition of Islamic canon law which gave way to transfer to a secular law structure by adoption from Swiss Civil Code and other laws.
The Ataturks reforms are not anti-Islamic. Reforms included the establishment of Ministry for Religious Affairs, with the duty of “to execute the works concerning the beliefs, worship, and ethics of Islam, enlighten the public about their religion, and administer the sacred worshipping places.” Reforms visualized a state which stands at an equal distance ("active neutrality" rather than "passive neutrality") from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı become responsible for selection of appropriate policies through carefully analysis/evaluation.
Ottoman Empire was a religions empire which the community enjoyed some autonomy See Millet (Ottoman Empire) - an elected Communal Council, a Chief Rabbi, religious courts, etc. The social decisions were based on religious affiliation and some cases decisions were taken by religious interpretation. The Ataturks reforms forced the Religious affairs out of politics, in the favor of popular sovereignty. The Ottoman Communal structure was seen as a religious entity (governed by religious doctrines)and government cut the support to these structures. As a result communal structure was changed. With the worsening economic situation, many of the rich families who had donated to the community foundations, schools, hospitals, etc., lost their wealth or emigrated. Without government support the religious communities tried to adjust to the new way but many of their attempts failed. However, the same state acted firmly against acts of anti-religious feelings (anti-Semitism), and announced that all Turkish citizens are equal, and deserve the protection of the Republic. Kemalist reforms even forced to change the call of prayer from Arabic to Turkish. The politics take away the chance of forming policies based on religion but such as in the Izmir's Jews case, today people with firm religious background are looking for viable ways to continue to enjoy the tolerance of their country without specific government support [5].
The Turkish Constitution of 1924 gave high importance to the sovereignty and independence of the Turkish state. In the system there was a government (Prime Minister) and a President, but the executive and legislative power left at the unicameral Grand National Assembly[6]. The political system composed from one side Ataturk (the reformers) and the other side was the Turkey[6]. Opposition formed from reformers which constantly pursue their goal at the parliament which represented the Turkey. Ataturk and revolutionaries had to discussed the reforms that they wanted to pursue as the final executive decision was on the Assembly. The classic form of separation of power was largely cosmetic[6]. In this structure the single party had forced through its revolutionary policies through the Grand National Assembly, but every reform was discussed (through political communication). The elections were representative of social change which helped the Ataturk to measure the results of his reforms. Through this form, at least at the legislative level, democracy flourished and give away to true multi-party elections in 1945[6].
Mustafa Kemal regarded the fez (in Turkish "fes", which Sultan Mahmud II had originally introduced to the Ottoman Empire's dress code in 1826) as a symbol of feudalism and banned it, encouraging Turkish men to wear European attire, although that dress had no connection to the establishment of a democracy or secular values. Notwithstanding the strong Islamic proscription against alcoholic beverages, he encouraged domestic production of alcohol and established a state-owned spirits industry, thereby questioning the extent to which his reforms were truly "secular" in inspiration, as opposed to simply forcing Turkish society to become more like Western society. He was known to have an appreciation for the national beverage, rakı, and enjoyed it in vast quantities.[7] Adoption of Western calendar, hours and measurements slowly passed between 1925 - 1931.
The reforms in family law, The Turkish civil Code, women's suffrage were "breakthroughs not only within the Islamic world but also in the Western world"[8] Legal equality between the sexes was instituted by changes and balancing many other rules and regulations between 1926 - 1934. Among the main rights given to women, the first time in Turkish history, was to right to vote and own a property. Georgia Scott informs us about the complexity of the female rights in Turkey giving a quote from an Architect in Istanbul "My mother and grandmother's covered every day. They could never go outside and feel the air, or go on a boat and feel the mist. My mother still covers. I hate it, and I would nerver want to like that" [9] The Turkish women different than other women's rights groups instead of fight to win their basic rights and equality organized around maintaining and defending Ataturks reforms and principles of secularism [10].
Ottoman Empire was a religions empire which the community enjoyed some autonomy See Millet . Each millet depending on the belief system governed either by Shariah, Catholic Canon law, or Jewish Halakha. The leading legal reforms instituted by Mustafa Kemal included the complete separation of government and religious affairs and the adoption of a strong interpretation of the principle of laïcité in the constitution. This was coupled with the closure of Islamic courts and the replacement of Islamic canon law (1924 - 1937) with a secular civil code modeled after Switzerland and a penal code modeled after the Italian Penal Code (1924 - 1937). The reforms also instituted legal equality between the sexes and the granting of full political rights to women on December 5, 1934, well before several other European nations.
In 1920, and today, the Islamic Law did not contain provisions regulating the sundry relationships of "political institutions" and "commercial transactions" of modern world[11]. When Ottoman Empire dissolved partly because of outdated system; the traditions were not applicable to the demands of its time, such as the rules relating to "criminal cases" which was shaped under Islamic Law were limited in serving their purpose adequately.[11] The Ottoman Islamic codes and legal provisions generally were impracticable dealing with the wider concept of social system [during the 19th century]. The Islamic Law and Christian Law [which was the law system used by the Christian millets, see: Millet] became drastically different. In many occasions the technological advances forced the communities to change which the changed helped losing the vitality of available set of rules. Polygamy has not been practiced by the law binding citizens of Turkey after Atatürk's reforms, which its related rules in the Megelle was inapplicable[12]. There were thousands of articles in the Megelle which was not used due to their inapplicability. Polygamy in the Ottoman Empire, which was an accepted social phenomenon of Muslim Arab society even today, was applicable with the related rules set in the Megelle.
There is a background to the legal reforms. Legal reforms of Kemal could be perceived as the last step of failed history of modernization. Ottoman Empire tried to modernized the code with the reforms of 1839 (Hatt-i Sharif). Hatt-i Sharif in the Ottoman Empire tried to end the confusion in the judicial sphere by extending the legal equality to all citizens. In 1841 a criminal code was drawn up. When the Empire dissolved, there was still no legislation with regard to family and marital relationships[11]. The adaptation of laws relating to family and marital relationships is an important step which is attributed to Mustafa Kemal.
The educational reforms combined with the opening of People's Houses throughout the country and the active encouragement of people by Atatürk himself with many trips to the countryside teaching the new alphabet, succeeded in achieving a substantial increase of the public literacy rate from 20% to over 90%. The literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new Law on Copyrights and congresses for discussing the issues of copyright, public education and scientific publishing.
The unification of education had two important features. First one is the democratization and the second one is to activate secularism in the field of education. Unification come with three set of sub-laws [13] First, All the medreses and schools administered by private foundations or Ministry for Religious Affairs were connected to the Ministry of National Education[13]. Second the money allocated to schools and medreses from the budget of Ministry for Religious Affairs shall be transferred to the education budget[13]. Third the Ministry of Education shall open a religious faculty to raise higher religious experts within Darülfünûn and separate schools to raise imams and hatips[13].
With the unification of education, along with the closure of the old-style universities, applied a large-scale program of science transfer from Europe. One of the corner stone of educational institutions, University of Istanbul , accepted the German and Austrian scientists, whom the National Socialist regime in Germany had considered `racially' or politically undesirable. This political decision was accepted as the building the nucleus of science as a modern institution in Turkey[1]. The reform aimed to break away the traditional dependency [since the Ottoman Empire] on the transfer of science and technology by foreign experts [1].
On November 1, 1928, the new Turkish alphabet was introduced by the Language Commission at the initiative of Atatürk, replacing the previously used Arabic script. The adoption of the new alphabet, The modernization of language by removing adapted words was part of Mustafa Kemal's program of modernization[14]. The removal of Arabic script was defended on the ground that it was not appropriate for the authentic Turkish phonology, which needs a new set of symbols to be correctly represented[14]. Adaptation of technical vocabulary is a step of modernization, which was tried throughly. Vernacularization and simplification of the non-technical Turkish was made on the ground that the language of Turkish people should be comprehensible by the language they use. Good example is the Turkish word "Bilgisayar (Bilgi:Knowledge Sayar:Counter)" which was adapted for the word "Computer". Another important part of Atatürk's reforms encompassed his emphasis on the Turkish language and history, leading to the establishment of Turkish Language Association and Turkish Historical Society for research on Turkish language and history, during the years 1931–2.
Reforms in the field of economy included the establishment of many state-owned factories throughout the country for agriculture, machine, and textile industries, many of which grew into successful enterprises and became privatized during the latter half of 20th century. Atatürk considered the development of a national rail network as another important step for industrialization, and this was addressed by the foundation of Turkish State Railways in 1927, setting up an extensive rail network in a very short timespan.
Atatürk's reforms were regarded as being too rapid by some. In his quest to modernize Turkey, he effectively abolished centuries-old traditions by means of reforms to which much of the population was unaccustomed but nevertheless willing to adopt. In some cases, these reforms were seen as benefiting the urban elites rather than the generally illiterate inhabitants of the rural countryside,[15] where religious sentiments and customary norms tended to be stronger. In particular, Atatürk's strict religious reforms met with some opposition; and to this day, they continue to generate a considerable degree of social and political tension. In the future, political leaders would draw upon dormant forces of religion in order to secure positions of power, only to be blocked by the interventions of the powerful military (as in 1960 when Prime Minister Adnan Menderes was overthrown by the military),[16] which has always regarded itself as the principal and most faithful guardian of secularism.
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